From Such Great Heights

This is not likely how former President Hosni Mubarak wanted to make history. On June 2, the ousted leader was sentenced to life in prison for the killing of peaceful protesters during the 18-day uprising of January 2011. He is the first Arab Spring leader to be tried in person and convicted by his own people. The news divided the country: Many demanded a much harsher sentence, while others felt it was enough of a punishment for an 84-year-old man. Mubarak spend 29 years in office — the longest serving ruler since Mohamed Ali Pasha. His distinguished military service caught the eye of Anwar El-Sadat, who launched Mubarak’s political career by appointing him vice president. Thrust into the presidency, Mubarak had to deal with an economic crisis, social unrest and a region deeply resentful of Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel. Over the next decade, he repaired foreign relations and turned the economy around. Terror attacks were rising, however, targeting tourists and officials including Mubarak himself. By 2009, Mubarak had survived a reported six assassination attempts. A decade-long crackdown on militant Islamist organizations created a police state that continued long after attacks had stopped. During the last 10 years of Mubarak’s rule, opposition grew against his government’s corruption and the deteriorating economic situation. A technocrat-heavy Cabinet had pushed the privatization of state assets and increased foreign investments, with most of benefits going to elite. Inflation spiked, and the gap between the very rich and the very poor grew to a chasm. At the same time, Mubarak fielded political reforms designed to strengthen the NDP’s grip on power and weaken opposition parties. It all came to a head in January 2011, with a popular uprising that grew so loud that it could be ignored no longer. Shortly after, the long-dormant Supreme Council of Armed Forces appeared in the spotlight and issued its first communique, Egypt’s fourth and now ex-president was bundled into a helicopter and flown off to Sharm El-Sheikh, perhaps hoping to quietly fade from public sight and mind. Instead, he remains a lightening rod for the lost hopes of the revolutionaries who forced him from power. The Life of Mubarak 1928: Mohamed Hosni El Sayed Mubarak is born on May 4 in the village of Kafr El-Maselha, in the Menoufeya governorate. 1949: Mubarak receives a Bachelor’s degree in Military Sciences from the Egyptian Military Academy, which he joined after high school. That same year, he enters the Air Force Academy in Belbeis. 1950: He graduates from the Air Force Academy as a pilot and receives advanced flight and bomber training in the Soviet Union. He later receives his degree in Aviation Sciences. 1959-1961: Mubarak attends Soviet pilot training in Moscow and at Kant Air Base, near Bishkek in Kyrgyzstan. In 1959, Mubarak marries to Suzanne Thabit; the couple will have two sons, Alaa and Gamal. 1964: Mubarak attends the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. 1966: Returning to Egypt, Mubarak serves as a wing commander. He is later promoted to commander of the Cairo West Air Base, then appointed commander of the Beni Sueif Air Base. 1967: Mubarak becomes commander of the Air Force Academy. 1969: Mubarak is promoted to colonel and becomes chief of staff for the Air Force. 1972: Mubarak is appointed commander of the Air Force and the Egypt’s deputy minister of defense. 1973: Following the success of the Air Force during the October 6 War, Mubarak is promoted to Air Chief Marshal, the highest rank possible. 1975: Then-President Anwar El-Sadat appoints Mubarak as his Vice President. As VP, Mubarak earns a reputation as a key foreign policy player by negotiating peace-treaty details with Israel and trying to convince Saudi Arabia and Syria to sign the peace agreement. 1981: Mubarak becomes Egypt’s fourth president following the assassination of Sadat; he was also injured during the attack. He also becomes chairman of the National Democratic Party (NDP). 1987: Mubarak wins a second six-year term in a popular referendum on his presidency. 1989: Seven years into Mubarak’s rule, Egypt is readmitted to the Arab League, which had suspended the country’s membership for signing the 1979 Peace Treaty with Israel. 1990-1991: Mubarak leads other Arab states in supporting Saudi Arabia’s decision to invite a US-led military coalition to the kingdom after Iraq invades Kuwait. Egypt commits 35,000 troops, the third-largest contingent, to the Gulf War coalition forces. 1993: Mubarak is a key player in mediating the Oslo Agreement between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). That same year, Mubarak is reelected via a popular referendum that critics say is rigged. After opposition groups demand democratic reforms, the regime cracks down on militant Islamists, including Al-Jameyaa Al-Islamiya (Islamic Group), which later claims responsibility for the 1997 terror attacks in Luxor. 1995: Mubarak survives an assassination attempt in Ethiopia, allegedly carried out by the Egyptian Islamic Jihad. 1999: Mubarak survives an assassination attempt in Port Said and is mildly wounded by the attacker’s knife. He is reelected by referendum for a fourth term. 2003: Mubarak publicly denounces the US war on Iraq. Later, he rejects calls for an early US troop pull-out, asserting that it would leave Iraq in chaos. 2004: Prime Minister Atef Ebeid and most of the Cabinet resigns, and Mubarak appoint new ministers drawn heavily from NDP businessmen, led by Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif. While hailed as a reform Cabinet, key ministries such as defense, civil aviation, and petroleum remain firmly in the hands of the old guard. 2005: On September 7, the country has its first multi-candidate presidential elections in history. According to official results, Mubarak wins 88.6% of the votes and a fifth term in office. Turnout is low, and election monitors report widespread corruption and intimidation in the voting process. JANUARY 2011: Starting January 25, the people of Egypt take to the streets to protest corruption, police brutality and soaring prices. On January 30, Mubarak sacks his Cabinet, replacing technocrats with old guard ministers and appointing former spy chief Omar Suleiman as vice president — his first VP ever. FEBRUARY 2011: In an emotional speech on February 1, Mubarak says he will not run for a sixth term in July but insists he will not step down before elections. He makes a second speech refusing to resign on February 10. On February 11, Vice President Suleiman issues a terse announcement that Mubarak has stepped down. AUGUST 3, 2011: After weeks of public protests, Mubarak stands trial for the killing of protesters during the 18-day uprising and for financial corruption. JUNE 2, 2012: Mubarak is sentenced to life in prison for the killing of protesters and is immediately taken to Tora Prison. He is acquitted of the financial corruption charges. His lawyers immediately promise to appeal the conviction. et